College Life Essay

College is much different from my high school in so many ways. In my high school we was always on the same routine. We had four periods a day and first period started at 7:45 and we was on a block schedule meaning our classes was an hour and thirty minutes long. We had the same classes everyday so more learning during the day and less homework. Immediately after school we had football practice four days a week and played on Fridays. High school Is a good preparation for college, even though while in high school you will never expect what happens in college. In high school your parents were more involved in what go on in your daily life, whether you get in trouble in class or you get sick at lunch. College is an great experience I think everyone should have. In college you will learn responsibilities and how to take care of yourself. My life have change dramatically, went from seeing my family everyday to seeing them every three weeks maybe. The classes in college is much different than high school , there is no set schedule to do your homework or to study. This is where the responsible part come in, you are responsible whether you eat , sleep, study, have fun and even exercise. I didn’t mention being a student-athlete was hard as well, even though if I wasn’t an athlete I wouldn’t be a student. College not for everyone but if you have the opportunity at your grasp take advantage and make your family proud. Student-athletes have to set times like everyone else in college to complete there work and go to class but also they have to maintain there practice schedule daily. Being an athlete at Albany State is wonderful the fan base is so incredible and the odds are stack against us of making it pro. That’s why we are worked so hard and put to the test on the field and in the class room. Being a football player, practice start at 2:45 and end at 5:00 or so and some players have class after practice which is difficult to make some days but class is MANADTORY at Albany state. The coaches here are great and most of the coaches are alumni of this great school so they care about the organization deeply. Albany State Golden Rams is a Division ll power house which most teams underestimate and we show it to them on Saturdays. Here at Albany State Football players are respected not for what we do on the field but also of what we accomplish in the classrooms. I am very glad that I am able to attend Albany State University. Everything here is so overwhelming starting with The New Student Union Building . The food is amazing and the staff is amazing and caring. The games and the televisions are so entertaining and sitting in there is so relaxing and is a great study area. Campus life is the best of college experience meeting new people and socializing in the dorms. Here at Albany state are people that your going to be life long friends with. This campus is so secure thanks to the campus police. They are very concerned about the residents and love to protect and serve. If I had the choice to go to another institution I would not go Albany state is the life to live and the best college experience in the world. I appreciate what the staff, professors, coaches, police, RA’s , hall managers, and the Preside.

After the Battle

A jumble of limbs and skin, not that I knew it, I was just another fragment of the landscape, a surface of khaki and blood, surrounded the shore, clouded a dusky pink where a ship sat deserted and alone. Sand gatherings were sleek as they followed the wind and flustering specs as sharp as glass, were deciding where to settle, inspecting every body, join it for a while, but would soon be gone. Now my clothes are crusted with blood, a gunshot so neat can rip through your body; like a mole it burrow's within the depths of flesh, blood and bone, stopping at nothing to pass to the other side. A gunshot so destructive, can take no longer than a fraction of a millisecond, to puncture your heart, to suck the air from your lungs and leave the blood to empty your veins hour after hour. Hour after hour†¦its time to bleed. I could no longer feel the bitter sting of the burning sand on my open wounds, nor the suffocating inner walls of the tunnels, carved by a bullet, still seeping. All I could feel was a general ache, the fact that I'm still alive, seems inadequate. I feel like a tap that has been left on, drip, drip, waiting for my life, to be effortlessly, cut off. I could well be melting and the taste of the fluids dripping from my face is recognisable, I am drowning in my own blood, sweat and tears. Hesitating to open my eyes, I think of a rusty gate as the weight is so difficult to lift, secured with glue-like mucus, sharp and jagged in some places, my eyelids seem to be made of metal, brittle and disabled by age and rust. How long had I been here? Had I grown old in this battle? I feel altogether robotic, like a machine that had been broken, no longer a human but just another tool for those who are better than I am, either them or the person left in me gave me the strength to open my eyes, as that gateway is like lifting numerous tonnes of weight. But to my dismay all I saw were gashes of light that came to me like a stampede, the sand was on me and everywhere, each grain an annoying little bee, my eyes become a hive of little sand and blinding white, just being in existence. I sharply shut them again, I'm back in my own little world, but is that place really where I'm needed? Again, the shutter doors must open, the jagged edge is now broken, it seems a great weight off my mind when the entrance is clear, the gate is now satisfactory and lifts quite swiftly, I am free, freed into what? I'm stumped between a prison and a mass A and E. Everything around me is death, leads to death or inspires it. Ghoulish faces looked at me from all around, but with no expression. Their features lie beneath the murky layer of dust and dirt. One who was settled very close to me, has deep red stains all around his mouth and nose, it is visible to see the dried out tracks where blood had quickly escaped through his lips and nostrils, and even faint fingerprints where he must have rapidly checked the bleeding. He had been shot only once, in his neck, one move for one life and that touching of his face was likely to be the last move he ever made. His right hand lay on the sand, next to his neck, his fingertips too, tinted with his own blood. I suddenly realise that something was holding me up, I couldn't understand why I hadn't known this before, as it was far too close to my skin considering my vest, shirt and thick jacket, soon my awareness makes it somewhat painful. The sharp jagged material had formed a spear, and it took a moment to think about getting myself out of this awkward position. The gunshots in my leg and side were holding me back, but I had to use anything else I had in the world to push me away from this pain. †¦I can see my wife, that blinding white is now lighting up her big brown eyes, those same eyes that believed so much in me all that time ago, stand right before me as if they never left†¦ If this was all I had, it had to be enough to get me through this day; I must survive, if only for that. Stand up. I hesitantly move my boot soles onto to the flattest sand I can find, even now my leg is vibrating with pain, but I must go on. Stand up! Come on man! You are weak! You're no use to any of us down there! I won't ask you again boy! My knees unbend themselves and some miracle had led me to my feet, from where I immediately fall into the almost alight sand bed, it agitatedly buzzed around me, stinging and biting on any flesh available. But it was the distinct scream that will always haunt my mind, I didn't before this imagine I would ever fear my own voice, as it shattered the silence I lay hoping and praying it would not wake anybody up, I preferred to be alone. Or close to it, as my gaze now met that of another pair of eyes drained of all emotion. I looked at him, I wanted him to look unhappy, I wanted to feel sympathy, but it looked at me with pride, it had died in honour, it had done his duty, so nothing mattered. I reached out and gently pulled his eyelids over those misty eyes, and already began to miss him. I looked over him towards the admirable surroundings, where I always wanted to come, huge cliffs towered above me, crowned with beautiful plants, the vague outlines of which I saw swaying, almost dancing beneath the beautiful sunlight. The heat had done nothing but added to my pain, but the sky now glowed, its rich blue tones comforted me, I had done well, this I knew as I released my thoughts into the cloudless sky, where I stayed, 'til the end.

Comparison Between Directed and Reported Speech

DIRECT SPEECH VS. REPORTED SPEECH There are two ways to report what someone says or thinks; 1. Direct speech shows a person’s exact words. Quotation marks (â€Å". . . †) are a sign that the words are the same words that a person used. For example: Madison: What do you want to eat for lunch? Jason: I think I will have hamburger. Direct speech: Maria asked, â€Å"What do you want to eat for lunch? † Jason replied, â€Å"I think I will have hamburger. † 2. Reported speech (Indirect speech) puts the speaker’s words or ideas into a sentence without quotation marks. Noun clauses are usually used.For example: Madison: What do you want to eat for lunch? Jason: I think I will have hamburger. Reported speech: Madison asked Jason What he wanted for lunch. Jason said that he was thinking of having hamburger for lunch. COMPASRISON BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 1. 0 VERB TENSE IN REPORTED SPEECH DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED SPEECH| simple present past present pe rfect will can | simple past past perfectpast perfect wouldcould| Quotation Reported speech â€Å"I am hungry. † She stated that she was hungry. â€Å"The exam will be next week. † Dr. Jones said the exam will be next week 2. QUESTIONS IN REPORTED SPEECH a. Word order: The word order in a reported question is the same as in a statement. The subject comes before the verb. b. Punctuation: If the sentence is a statement, it end with a period (. ) even if it contains a reported question. c. To change a yes/no question to a noun clause in reported speech, introduce the noun clause with if or whether. Whether or not may also be used. d. To change an information question to a noun clause in reported speech, begin the noun clause with the question word,DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED SPEECH| * Question: Are you ready? Statement: I am ready. * â€Å"Did you turn off the coffee pot? † * â€Å"Is supper ready? † * â€Å"Where do they live? † * â€Å"When did you cal l? † | * She wanted to know if I was ready. * I asked Amy if she had turned off the coffee. * Eli wanted to know whether supper was ready. * Abdul wanted to know where they live. * Sharon asked me when I had called. | 3. 0 PRONOUNS Since the person who is reporting what someone said is usually different from the person who made the original statement, pronouns in reported speech often change.DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED SPEECH| * â€Å"I am hungry. † * â€Å"Where will you be? † | * George said he was hungry. * Bill wanted to know where I would be. | 4. 0 PLACE AND TIME Changes in place and time words depend on changes in the situation between direct and reported speech. DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED SPEECH| * â€Å"I don’t like this book. † * â€Å"I’ll see you tomorrow. † (spoken on Thursday) | * Jaime said he didn’t like that book. * Michiko said she would see me today. (spoken on Friday) Michiko said she would see me yesterday. (spoken on Saturday)| 5. 0 INFINITIVES . Infinitives (to + the simple form of the verb) may sometimes be used instead of noun clauses. b. Commands can be reported two ways: 1. a noun clause with a modal (usually should) 2. an infinitive c. Requests for action or permission can be reported two ways: 1. a noun clause with if 2. an infinitive DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED SPEECH| * â€Å"Call me when you get home. † * Action: â€Å"Will you carry the box for me? † * Permission: â€Å"Can I make an appointment? † | * -She said that we should call her when we get home. -She said to call her when we get home. -She asked me if I would carry the box for her. * -She asked me to carry the box for her. * -The student asked if he could make an appointment. -The student asked to make an appointment. | 6. 0 RECOMMEND AND SUGGEST The subjunctive, or base, form of the verb (no tense, without to) is used in reported speech when the main verb is recommend or suggest. DIRECT SPEECH| REPORTED S PEECH| * â€Å"You should arrive early. † * â€Å"Don’t wait to apply. † | * Jason recommended that we arrive early. * Anna recommended that I not wait to apply. |

Explain the federal court system in its entirety. Be sure to state and Essay

Explain the federal court system in its entirety. Be sure to state and explain each of the courts that comprise the federal syst - Essay Example The hierarchy of courts also includes several administrative courts such as the U.S. Claims Court, the Court of International Trade, quasi-judicial tribunals of the federal regulatory agencies and the military tribunals (Van Devort 2000). It also includes the U.S. Tax Court and a lesser tribunal, the U.S. Court of Veterans Appeal. The federal district court is a court of original jurisdiction; this is where â€Å"cases and controversies† are file for the first time (Van Dervort 2000). From the trial courts cases are brought for appeal in the U.S. court of appeals. The U.S. court of appeals is the intermediate appeals courts in the federal system. It has two types the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals and U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. The first has limited jurisdiction and only hear and decide cases regarding questions of law and not of fact from the district courts and is also the appellate court for the U.S. Tax Court. The second has jurisdiction to hear appeals from district courts based on specialized matters such as cases arising from patent laws and damages against the federal government, and possess jurisdiction over appeals from several administrative bodies and from the decisions of the U.S. Claims Court and the Court of International Trade.

Strategy Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Strategy Experience - Essay Example Although these â€Å"snap decisions† created a situation in which the firm was able to react to the sudden changes and unique dynamics of the business environment, they necessarily left me a bit disquieted with regards to the overall quality of the inputs and the data that were being levered as a means of making these decisions. Further, the perennial concern that developed within my mind was whether or not these choices could ultimately have a very strong level of impact upon the longevity and success of the firm; due to the fact that some of the changes and pursuits that were engaged negated ones that had been made previously. Yet, as the process wore on, it became clear and apparent that even though the snap changes that were engaged took place at a dizzying speed, this rate of change was absolutely integral if the firm was indeed to survive in the climate of global business competition. By utilizing up to date information and tracking core levels of data, the meetings were able to present relevant needs that could encourage new levels of efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, a clear and unique distinction was able to be drawn between a long term strategy and short term goals. Further, in the beginning of the process, most stakeholders were unaware of how to incorporate the many different inputs that they received on each and every issue at hand. However, as the process wore on, individuals, myself included, felt more confident and comfortable engaging with the complexities that each decision necessarily portended. This should not be understood to mean that the decisions came to be easier over time; instead, the stakeholders became more familiar with the ways in which individual choices had complex outcomes that would affect other aspects of the company and lead to previously unforeseen consequences for the future. 2. Consider a specific

Two Complex Crises that preceded the Civil War Assignment

Two Complex Crises that preceded the Civil War - Assignment Example Northerners were not universally concerned with the humanitarian aspects of slavery, but they were almost unanimously against the growing political power of the Southern landowner. The Southern states had a disproportionate power in the House of Representatives and in the Electoral College due to the 3/5 count of slaves. By 1819, this rule boosted the membership of the Southern states in the House by 17 representatives. While this seems like backwards thinking, since of course if the slaves were to become free citizens they would receive a full count in the House of Representatives, those votes would likely fall in the same theme as those of the Northern anti-slavery states. This would help re-balance the scales in the House, the same way that admitting states in pairs between slave-owning and free states balanced the power in the Senate (Howe, 150). In order to settle this debate about the balance of power, Henry Clay helped to mediate the historical Missouri Compromise, which agree d that slavery would be prohibited in the new territory north of the line of 36 degrees 30' latitude. For the South, this compromise ensured the continuation of their ideal that there would be no end to slavery without the consent of the local white population, by majority vote. It also set as a principle what had already been the precedent, that states should be admitted into the United States in pairs, continuing the balance of power in the Senate between the two (Howe, 154). What could be considered the most important outcome of this compromise was that it solidified and clarified the viewpoint of the South toward emancipation. The situation surrounding the Missouri Compromise sHowe,d that even those Southerners who had a more moderate stance toward slavery in theory, when it came down to practice they were obviously against even gradual emancipation (Howe, 155). While the Missouri Compromise prevented the Republican party from falling apart along the lines of the Northern and So uthern states, it did later result in the the further division of Congress because of the practice of admitting states in pairs (Howe, 155, 836). The political party in the South known as the Radicals was gaining political power. These Radicals feared that the Missouri Compromise might lead to further compromises on the issue of slavery, and eventually end with the outlawing of all slave-owning practices (Howe, 402-403). Part 2: The Nullification Crisis This fear linked to a later controversy, the Nullification Crisis. This crisis centered around the Tariff of 1832, as the Radicals linked such tariffs with emancipation efforts (Howe, 402-403). This nullification would result in the removal of the federal price on land sales. If the group could pressure other states into following their lead on the tariff they could use it for slavery and protect the institution (The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History). In 1832, South Carolina declared federal tariff on land sales to be voi d, and raised an army to defend this nullification (The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History). The bill passed that nullified the tariff also mentioned the threat of secession from the Union if the tariff was not repealed (Howe, 404). President Jackson declared nullification illegal and had Congress pass the Force Act, which allows

Response Paper 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response Paper 5 - Essay Example The third chapter does not have ways gentle methods of controlling children in their â€Å"middle years,† but measures of living and comprehending a teenager’s way of thinking and behavior (Boston Womens Health Book Collective, 1978). This way, parents can assist their children in becoming the best of themselves. Bell emphasizes that this should not be achieved through fear or looking for approval, but through freewill. The authors’ guidance eases parenting by eliminating the struggling aspect. The third chapter entails real stories by parents and children, which frequently move the reader in terms of joy and pain. The emotional rollercoaster of the examples used eventually lead readers, especially parents, to learn that there is a kinder method of dealing with children in their middle years. The entire reading presents a communication formula for parents with children of all ages. This formula offers a combination of communication and behavioral learning skills and tools for parents. The tools allow parents to go further than their original fruitless response to a response that links and empowers children and parents (Boston Womens Health Book Collective, 1978). The problems children face during their middle years are not for them alone to deal with. This lesson pervades all through the reading. The authors emphasize the parent’s role in assisting his or her child in dealing with their problem. To handle this problem, the parent must first communicate with the child to learn about its source and effect on him or her. Acquiring problematic information from the child should certainly include realizations on the parent’s side regarding the child’s entrance into the public world. In addition, changing physically contributes to the effect or source of these problems. To help the child with them, the parent should consider

Locke's Argument for the Conclusion of the Primary Qualities of Essay

Locke's Argument for the Conclusion of the Primary Qualities of Objects and the Secondary Qualities of Objects - Essay Example I shall argue that the distinction is well-grounded and interesting, that Locke had grasped an important truth about it, and that Berkeley's treatment of this matter is impercipient and unhelpful. Berkeley assimilated the primary/ secondary distinction to that monolithic 'theory of material substance' which he thought he detected in Locke's writings; and I shall argue that that is the dominating fact about his failure to deal competently with the distinction between primary and secondary qualities. Locke has two general, true things to say about the primary/ secondary distinction. One of them is his thesis that primary qualities are such as are utterly inseparable from the body, in what state so ever it be; and such as in all the alterations and changes it suffers, all the force can be used upon it, it constantly keeps; and such as sense constantly finds in every particle of matter which has bulk enough to be perceived. In most of Locke's theorizing, a thing's primary qualities are taken to consist in its being spherical, two feet across, and falling rapidly; but here they are thought of rather as a thing's being shaped, of some size, mobile, etc. That is, in the thesis that primary qualities are ones which a body cannot lose, it is determinable qualities which are in question and not determinate ones. Locke's example reinforces this reading: 'Take a grain of wheat, divide it into two parts; each part has still solidity, extension, figure, and mobility: divide it again, and it retains still the same qualities.' It is not clear that 'solidity' is a determinable, either in its normal meaning or in Locke's specialized sense in which 'solid' means 'impenetrable'. Locke has a good point here, but he ought not to express it as though it were a prediction about the outcome of an experiment, for really it is a point about the meaning of the word 'body', or about the concept of a body or a physical thing. I ndeed the word 'primary' for Locke partly means that these are qualities a thing must have to count as a 'body'. Locke's discussions of the concept of body involve detailed points which are of some interest but which lie beyond my present scope. His general thesis that the raw materials which constitute the concept of body are to be found within the realm of primary qualities, and that secondary qualities are conceptually inessential, seems safe enough. Yet Berkeley apparently denies it: 'It is not in my power to frame an idea of a body extended and moved, but I must withal give it some color or other sensible quality . . . In short, extension, figure, and motion, abstracted from all other qualities, are inconceivable.' The quoted passage is, as it stands, true: a thing's being extended, or its taking up space, must involve some spatial region's being occupied by something--some quality must be manifested in that region other than mere extension. But the quality could be solidity, w hich is on Locke's list of primary qualities. If Berkeley really is saying only that 'body' could not be defined out of extension, figure and motion, without recourse to solidity, then

Special needs- children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Special needs- children - Essay Example By this system the people who were excluded will be reached and will be provided with a safe and comfortable environment, in which they will grow all together leaning cooperation. I belief true inclusion provides an opportunity to the children and youth with special needs to develop a sense of belongingness through nurturing relationship outside their family, acquiring the knowledge of support system and access to community. The children without special need can also benefit from this inclusion by getting acquainted to the atmosphere of value diversity. Previously the schools did not address the issue of varied learning style for the children instead they have one size fit for all curriculum that did not included the children with special need. To change this and to promote inclusion special education legislation and research has developed special services that will provide service and placement to all students regardless of their disability. Inclusion of special need children is a very controversial topic but my personal experience says that it leads to a substantial affect on the upbringing of a child. On this note I would like to share one of my personal e xperiences, which makes me belief like this. One of my friend’s son was suffering from Partial Autism. Though he was fine in communication but he lack some of the normal communications like he used to repeat the same sentence again and again. Whatever his parents said he didn’t paid attention towards them instead he did things as per his own wish. My friend consulted many doctors but there was no improvement. He got him admitted to a school where inclusion was followed. It worked as a miracle. He has now got his own friend circle, which makes him learn the normal ways of talking, playing and writing. He gets the feel of the normal society which he was devoid of before. He has now become more confident than before. Now he has started listening to his parents and follows their instructions. I

Bipolar disorder Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bipolar disorder - Term Paper Example Bipolar disorder falls among the oldest illnesses, which are known. The recognition of the disorder was during the second century and the discovery was in a Turkey’s city. The findings were not noticed and neither were they substantiated up to the year 1650, when Richard Burton, a scientist wrote his book called The Anatomy of Melancholia. The book majorly laid much emphasis on depression. The findings of the scientist are still used today even by fields related to mental health (Brent and Pan, 2008). In the year 1952, a journal article was written that critically analyzed the disorder’s heredity. The article showed that manic depression is capable of being passe own in families that already have patients with the disorder. In 1960’s, several people with bipolar disorder were placed at a given institution and provided with little financial help since the Congress refused to acknowledge that manic depression is a legitimate illness. However, during the 1970â€℠¢s, laws were enacted and besides, standards were put into place to aid the afflicted individuals. Similarly, in the year 1979, National Association of Mental Health was established (Reich, Clayton and Winokur, 1969). During the 1980’s, research was finally capable of distinguishing between childhood as well as adult bipolar disorder. Presently, a number of studies are still needed to unravel the possible causes as well as the probable means of treating the illness (Baloch & Soares, 2010). Generally, bipolar disorder develops when an individual is approaching his late teens although it also develops when individuals approaches their adulthood. However, there are a number of cases commences before the age of 25 (Kessler et al, 2005). In a number of individuals, first symptoms occur during their childhood, while in others, symptoms may develop very late in their lives. Diagnosis of bipolar disorder is done after individuals report their experiences; however, it may also be done after friends, family members and co-workers detect an abnormality. Secondary signs of the illness may be detected by clinical psychologist, social workers, psychiatrist, nurses, and also through clinical evaluation. However, the diagnosis of the condition is dependent on the presence as well as the duration of specific signs as well as symptoms (Sadock & Sadock, 2007). For an individual having bipolar disorder to be diagnosed correctly, it takes roughly 20 years. In approximately 37% of patients, bipolar disorder is usually diagnosed erroneously since it is always mistaken for unipolar depression. Surveys also prove that about 50% of individuals suffering from the disorder fail to take the medications that are prescribed (Brent & Pan, 2008). In general, the problem is not caused by the patient, though impaired judgment offer powerful incentives for skipping the medication. In order to control the disorder, drugs should be used. However, the drugs have side effects, which include g aining of weight as well as cognitive dulling (Young et al., 1978). In about 90% of marriages, that involves partners with bipolar disorder result into divorce due to the diseases adverse effects. Moreover, researchers have made estimation that about 40 percent of individuals having the disorder abuse drugs. Researchers also state that approximately 15 to 25% of individuals ha

Careers Learning and Development in Katz, Sapper and Miller Company Case Study

Careers Learning and Development in Katz, Sapper and Miller Company - Case Study Example The core values include lifetime relations, integrity, responsiveness, quality, employee success, and entrepreneurship. Through the company’s business strategy that â€Å"Don’t just have clients; have partnered for life† it is clear that the company works towards establishing a long life relationship with its partners. Inherently, Katz, Sapper & Miller offers a full range of tax compliance together with planning services which mainly targets private and public companies, individuals, non-profit organizations and estates. Moreover, the company also is involved in evaluating business along with control risks for its clients. This includes audits and review of financial statements, compliance audit. Similarly, Katz, Sapper & Miller assist its client in target identification and post-deal integration which includes advisory accounting and reporting, valuations, transfer pricing and due diligence (Maurer 8). Katz, Sapper & Miller is not only known for its technical competence along with a good depth of knowledge that provides an extra edge that makes their clients more successful, but also its professionalism and community service. In order to ensure strict employee compliance with federal and state regulation and the company’s high ethical standards, KSM accountants attend professional education classes. Actually, the employees attend the professional classes throughout the year (Maurer 6). One of the ways David Resnick has employed in order to resolve differences of opinion that surface between clients and company consultants is through numerous advice to the clients. Mainly, KSM considers the abilities and passion of new college recruits before taking them. Mostly the new recruits are first taken through an internship program before confirmed as new employees. Moreover, the academic qualifications include 3.40 overall GPA and undergraduate or masters in accounting (Katz Sapper & Miller 4). Such candidates should possess written and oral communication skills, together with a desire to pursue the public accounting career.

Luxury Brand Marketing Essay Example for Free

Luxury Brand Marketing Essay While the word ‘luxury’ is used in daily lives to refer to certain lifestyle, the underlying construct’s definition is consumer and situation specific. If you earn less than 15000 a month, a pair of reebok shoes would be a really big luxury item for you. On the other hand, if you are going to a party with some big-wigs a $100,000 car may not be a luxury. The word luxury originates from the Latin term â€Å"luxus† signifying, â€Å"soft or extravagant living, indulgence, sumptuousness or opulence† The meaning of luxury is extremely subjective and multidimensional in nature. It depends on dimension such as high price, high quality, uniqueness, exclusivity etc. What is a luxury product? In economic terms, luxury products are those who can consistently command and justify a higher price than products with comparable functions and similar quality. In marketing term, luxury products are those who can deliver emotional benefits which is hard to match by comparable products. The luxury sector targets its products and services at consumers on the top-end of the wealth spectrum. These self-selected elite are more or less price insensitive and choose to spend their time and money on objects that are plainly opulence rather than necessities. For these reasons, luxury and prestige brands have for centuries commanded an unwavering and often illogical customer loyalty. Luxury and prestige brands such as Rolex, Louis Vuitton and Cartier represent the highest form of craftsmanship and command a staunch consumer loyalty that is not affected by trends. These brands create and set the seasonal trends and are also capable to pulling all of their consumers with them wherever they go. Premium brands are those brands like Polo Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger that aspire to be luxury and prestige brands but their marketing mix strategies are more attuned to a mass market, albeit a luxury mass market. They are also termed as mass-premium brands or mass-luxury brands. Fashion brands on the other hand are those that address the masses. Strategies for Luxury Marketing There are conventional foundations for ensuring success of a brand and they are listed below in brief : 1. The brand must be â€Å"expansive†. Which means it should be full of innovation opportunities for the marketer and in terms of satisfying the divergent needs of the luxury consumer 2. The brand must tell a story It is this story, of either heritage or performance or other aspects that goes on to build the aura of a brand over time. The story always accentuates the identity of the brand. 3. The brand must be relevant to the consumers’ needs Depending upon the mindset of the luxury class, it is imperative for a brand to satisfy those needs, whether they be for recognition or functional use etc. 4. The brand must align with consumers’ values A brand that does not concur with the basic values of a consumer’s society has a small chance of succeeding because luxury items are forms of expression or identification for a luxury consumer. This makes it difficult for the consumer to adopt the brand in such cases. 5. The brand must perform Irrespective of which category the brand belongs to, a performance assurance is a must for the brand if it wishes to be in the evoked set of luxury consumers, considering the price being paid for luxury. LUXURY brand marketing CONCEPTS: Socialite as a Conductor In 2006, when Christian Dior chose Chawla as its spokesperson, everyone was shocked some secretly jealous. Chawlas association: to be the face of the brand, be seen in Dior in the right circles, host events attended by the right people and generally hobnob with the circle that she already moves in. The money details are not clear people in the circuit and in the luxury industry say its part financial, part goodies. But it might be working. Chawla says, Dior has done incredibly well with a consistent rise in sales. It is the most visible brand in India with the highest recall value in terms of marketing strategies implemented. Socialites being signed up for a fashion brand is not new, at least not in the West, says former fashion editor and luxury specialist Sujata Assomull-Sippy. She mentions Armanis 19-year-old association with British semi-royal and socialite Lady Helen Taylor that started when he designed her wedding gown in 1992. The association ended in 2009. Taylor, who was also the face for Bulgari, gave a sigh of relief and was glad to give up her uniform. Six years hence, Chawla is nowhere close to hanging up her Dior couture. The Mohan for Gucci buzz has engendered new aspirations in the circuit that goes beyond the hostess or the grander-sounding luxury consultant tags. The socialite is becoming more important in a luxury brands marketing strategy as she pulls in the right kind of crowd, says Priya Sachdev, creative director for TSG International Marketing that has brought brands like YSL, Diane von Furstenberg to India. Nichevertising Brand consultant and strategist Harish Bijoor of Harish Bijoor Consults loftily terms it nichevertise vs massvertise. According to him the luxury brands are not for mass consumption and shouldnt be mass advertised. The social circuit gives them a fresh channel to reach out to their target audience without any noise. The socialite model of marketing targets the guest lists minus the hard sell, he says. Personal voice- distinct style Every luxury brand needs to develop a marketing strategy that not only helps them achieve their marketing goals, but is also in line with their brand. For example, while it makes sense for Christopher Bailey from Burberry to update the Burberry Facebook page with short videos he makes or music he supports, the same type of strategy might not work for someone like Bentley or Rolex. Bijoor says that for luxury brands, sell is a four-letter word and not just literally and thats why they aim at buy. Luxury brands like to be bought, not sold, he says. Sell is a top-down strategy which involves an element of shout you asking consumers to consider you. Buy, instead, is a pull-oriented strategy. Luxury brands love pull not push, he explains. This is ideal for the socialite marketing where the conversation with the brand is more visual and not aural.

Electric Vehicles And Their Effect On Society

Electric Vehicles And Their Effect On Society With the depletion of the earths ozone layer and the shortage of our oil supply becoming an issue, we have had to look at alternative fueled vehicles that will not harm the environment, but will still provide us with a reliable source of transportation. Compared to gasoline powered vehicles, electric vehicles are considered to be 97 percent cleaner, producing absolutely no tailpipe emissions that can place particulate matter into the air. Particulate matter can increase asthma conditions, as well as irritate respiratory systems. Because Electric Vehicles produce no emissions, there are no requirements for Electric Vehicle owners to ever take in their vehicle to an Emissions Testing Facility for an emissions inspection. Another factor that makes these vehicles so clean is that since they dont use half of the parts that a gasoline powered vehicle does (including gasoline and oil), they are not at risk of shedding any worn out radiator hoses, fuel filters, etc, to be dumped in our over crowded landfills, and leaking contaminated oil into our water supply, killing plant and animal life. Exceptionally quiet, Electric Vehicles produce no noise pollution. In fact they are so quiet that manufacturers are thinking that Electric Vehicles may one day require some kind of noise device on them to alert pedestrians that they are within the area. In a gasoline powered vehicle, the then engine must be kept running even when the vehicle is idle. When an Electric Vehicle is idle, the electric motor is not running and the vehicle is not using any energy. On hot days, a few hundred gas-powered cars sitting on the freeway produce an unimaginable amount of pollution. Electric Vehicles can run during hot days, cold days, at night, and can accelerate or remain idle and not produce any pollution. Many people claim that Electric Vehicles merely relocate the source of pollution to the power plants. Even though Electric Vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions, they still need electricity to be recharged, which means they need power plants to produce the electricity. These people fail to realize, however, that many modern power plants (especially in states like California) are clean, meaning they produce no pollution. Examples of clean power plants include nuclear reactors, windmills, hydroelectric plants and solar panels. Also, it is much easier to deal with isolated pollution sources such as power plants than it is to deal with millions of automobiles, each a source of pollution. As more and more power plants become clean and as more people realize what Electric Vehicles can do for the environment, Electric Vehicle use will increase, and our environment will become much nicer. Electric cars have been thought of as one answer to our dependence on fossil fuel burning vehicles. Their main appeal is that they produce no air pollution at the point of use so provide a way of shifting emissions to less polluted areas. Unfortunately also out of sight are the environmental consequences of manufacturing and recycling the lead- acid batteries electric vehicles require to run on. A recent drew attention to the problem of lead batteries in electric cars: Smelting and recycling the lead for these batteries will result in substantial releases of lead to the environment. The researchers compared the power, efficiency and environmental effects of electric cars with gas powered vehicles. Not only are electric cars comparatively slower and far more restricted in the distance they can travel but release more lead into the environment as well. The study showed that an electric car with batteries made from newly mined lead releases 60 times more lead than that of a car using le aded gas. Although the lead discharged in lead smelting and reprocessing is generally less available to humans in the U.S. than that dispersed by leaded gasoline cars driving where people are still using leaded gasoline. Even when precautions are taken there are still significant hazards. Lead processing facilities release lead into the air and waterways, and lead in solid waste leaches slowly into the environment. Clearly electric cars, despite their good for the environment image create far more of a problem than leaded gas cars and unleaded gas cars. In addition if a large number of electric cars are produced, the demand for lead for batteries will surge, requiring more lead to be mined. Manufacture needs to be halted until an alternative safer power source is found. These rules out current alternatives such as nickel-cadmium and nickel metal hydride batteries which are also highly toxic and far more expensive. Researchers speculate that lithium-polymer technologies may eventuall y be used. Should cities with a population in excess on 5 million such as LA, New York or Mexico city, which suffer from the adverse effects of smog, implement an electric car society, or a car tax by 2009 or would these measures be too costly to execute and burdensome for the average citizen. The creation of an electric car city would be a grueling task indeed. For it follows that the car in many countries is ubiquitous. A cultural symbol that is deeply embedded in the worlds psyche from the day it was created. To some it seems as though it is an impossible task, that we replace so many cars or that we limit the number of cars in the populated areas Although many argue that it is the car that contributes to the blight on this earth, spewing its pollutants into the air, and that a society without them would be a better one. The nature of todays world and in todays modern cities demands that we have a form of fast transportation. We would not function at all without it and walking, while it woul d make us all healthier, would consume too much of our time. I feel that if carefully planned and thought out, we neednt get rid of one without having to lose the benefit of the other. It is felt by many that the cause of urban pollution is as a result of too many cars. The poor design of many cities with regard to transportation has caused urban congestion. Consider of course the fact that many cars right now in cities are running but not moving. For example, in New York City, trying to find a parking space is both a cause and symptom of poor urban design. Clearly when there is not enough space in the city to house all of our cars, when parking space is considered a rare commodity then we have a problem. But in other cases such as Mexico City or Los Angeles the problem of poor urban design is even worse. Clearly when these cities were built the planners did not foresee the large number of gasoline chugging vehicles that would clog them. In addition there are various health problems that are suffered by urban dwellers as a result of the pollution. Asthma is a prime example, as it is the fastest growing childhood disease in urban areas, and most likely the result of the billions of particulates spewed into the atmosphere. Electric vehicles have more than technical hurdles to overcome: Some experts fear that the vehicles environmental impact is no lighter than that of gas-powered vehicles. And the biggest concerns center on the vehicles all-important batteries. Now researchers have published the first in-depth environmental analysis of electric cars using lithium-ion batteries, and have found that they beat their gas-fueled counterparts. When experts consider batteries environmental footprint, they worry about a range of issues, including the impacts of mining the necessary metals, the chemical manufacturing process, and whether the batteries end up in landfills or get recycled. According to the researchers analysis, about 15% of an electric vehicles total environmental burden comes from manufacturing, maintaining, and disposing of the lithium-ion battery. Most of those costs, about 50%, stem from mining and manufacturing the copper and aluminum used in the battery and its connecting cables. Extracting the necessary lithium produces only 2.3% of the batterys total environmental footprint. Still, the largest contributor to electric vehicles total environmental burden comes from recharging the battery. These operational costs were three times greater than the battery alone, but they fluctuated when the researchers looked at other electricity sources besides the typical European power mixture that includes nuclear power, hydropower, and fossil fuels. When the vehicles charged up on electricity from coal-fired plants alone, their total environmental impact increased by 13%, but it dropped by 40% when the electricity came solely from hydropower. Overall, when the researchers compared battery-powered vehicles to their gas-fueled counterparts, they calculated that a car with an internal combustion engine would need a fuel economy of about 60 to 80 mpg to achieve a lower environmental impact than a battery-powered electric vehicle that recharged using Unites States power sources. Overall, Electric Vehicles are stating to change the way people think about à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Going Greenà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ . With the advancement of battery technology and alternative fuels, these vehicles are producing fewer emissions and going further than ever before. We need to start relying on these technologies to start reducing our carbon footprint. As the years continue to pass, these vehicles are going to start changing the way we live, and operate in society. Bagatelle-Black, Forbes. EV WORLD: Electric Vehicles and the Environment. 27 Nov. 2007. Web. 04 May 2011. . Electric Vehicle. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 04 May 2011. . Gustafson, Sven. How Would Electric Cars Affect Our Environment? Michigan Local News. 14 Feb. 2008. Web. 04 May 2011. . Zemanta. The Negative Impact of Electric Cars on the Environment. News and Reviews on Electric Cars, Hybrids, Plug-in Electric Vehicles 9 Mar. 2010. Web. 04 May 2011. .

The Meaning Of Ethics In Criminal Justice Philosophy Essay

The Meaning Of Ethics In Criminal Justice Philosophy Essay This paper attempts to assist in giving a clear view of what ethics can be and how they are apply to the criminal justice field. I often hear discussions about, what is to make a moral judgment, or argue about an ethical issue, or to live according to ethical standards? Ethics can be a controversial subject because of the relevance of it in our daily life and the application of such in our professions. What are our personal responsibilities and why should we bother acting in accordance with moral principals? Therefore, in order to value ethics and morality we must understand the concept. Often, the belief in human superiority is a very fundamental one, and it underlies our belief in many sensitive areas. Ethic is not something logical only in the context of religion and sometimes should treat ethics as entirely independent of religion. Some theist say that ethics cannot do without religion because the very meaning of good is nothing other than what God approves. Plato refuted a simil ar claim more than two thousand years ago by arguing that if gods approve of some actions it must be because those actions are good, in which case it cannot be gods approval that makes them good. (Peter Singer, 1993 p.3) The Meaning of Ethics When applying ethics in the criminal justice field, we (the general public) expect every criminal justice professional to be faithful to the ethical standards; and to apply justice in a reasonable manner. Therefore, forcing the criminal justice professionals to live and work in an environment in which moral ambiguity is the norm. However, the question remains, what are ethics and moral standards? Ethic is the study of what should be done. The terms ethics and morality are often used interchangeably. The word ethics comes from the Greek ethickos- meaning an ethos, habits, pattern of behavior or prevailing attitude. The word morality is derived from the Latin morales- meaning custom, conventions or social norms. Unfortunately, these derivations are a little misleading, because ethics and morality have come to mean much more than a description of behavior, custom or current practice. (Ian Kerridge, Michael Lowe, John McPhee, 2005 p.1) The field of ethics can be broken down into various sub-classes. One major division is into meta-ethics, normative ethics and practical ethics. Metha-ethic is concerned with moral claims and the meaning of terms such as right, good, virtue and justice. One of the goals of meta-ethics is to examine the general characteristics of an ethical system. Normative ethics attempt to develop moral frameworks (principles, rules, theories, and guidelines) to guide our actions and evaluate our behavior. Practical ethics refers to the implication arising from ethics in the specific contexts. For example, Bioethics may be understood as one type of practical ethics, as it refers to ethics applied to anything in the biological sciences. (Ian Kerridge, Michael Lowe, John McPhee, 2005 p.1) Ethical standards are expressions of consensual moral attitudes and conventions developed in particular religious/spiritual, social, and cultural context. Ethical issues are becoming increasingly important in a world characterized by divisions-political, economic, religious, ethnic, gender and cultural. As a result of such division and, thus, the multiplicity of sociocultural influences on decision makers, it is no longer always obvious what is good or right behavior in many public and private situations. (Devenish Dowson, 2010 p. 87). In the criminal justice field, as well as other professions, the nature of professional ethics are an expression that a multitutude of possible meaning, and it is frequently used to signify rules governing professional and profession. The standards of conduct for professions are organized around the way in which a profession carries out its work. Setting ethical standards is one way in which professions seek to persuade the public to entrust their affairs and confidence to members of the profession. (Banks, 2009 p.129) For example, ethics are defing qualities of the police profession as it consist of the behaviour and attitude of police officers while acting under the law. (Bowen, 2010). Furthermore, criminal justice practitioners must follow the common principles of natural law which is the sanction that regulates behaviour of people on the basis of universal traits and common experiences. This includes treating people with dignity, governing with reason, not challenging equality of the people, governing people with ethical behaviours that lead to societal contentment, mainting peace in accordance with the goals of justice, and depending on natural law, when formal rules are unavialble. Therefore, it is important to know and remember that in the criminal justice field ethics are meant to complement and reinforce the law, not to undermine it. Laws are ever changing, whereas ethics are constant. Law are logical, reactive instrument of social control, whereas ethics are regulatory and based on reason ing. (Robin T. Bowen, 2010 p.24) One problematic aspect of ethics (and accountability) is the assumption of peoples responsibility for their actions. In order to judge a persons behavior as morally right or wrong, there is usually an assumption that their actions are freely chosen. The idea of free will, therefore, central to ethical reasoning and judgment; however, we really do not know what free will is. (Tim Prenzler, 2009 p.3). Many ethical codes draw foundational principles and frameworks from moral philosophy. The teaching of ethical standards should address a range of normative theories as a basis for comprehensive decision making, and pay full attention to the role of critical reasoning in ethical argument. (Devenish Dowson, 2010 p.87). In conclusion, whether, in the criminal justice field, personal lives or any other any profession ethical and moral standards are an essential part of our daily living. Ethics can be misunderstood, and some people think that morality and ethical standards are now out of date. Some even view morality as a system of vicious puritanical prohibition. As far as making a correlation between religion, ethics and morality, religion serves to regulate, codify, and to direct moral understanding. Human beings have unanimously turned to religion as the vital source for moral regulation and action. Much of the world does not believe that morality is invented or sustained by human will and consciousness alone, but that morality is contingent upon divine principles. Sr. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), considered one of the greatest medieval theologians, adopted the philosophy that ethics are necessary for the common good of all, not just those in power or the elite. Ethics must reflect natural law, which is bestowed on humanity by God (Madison, 2005 p.85-86). Nevertheles, ethics are comparative to the society one happens to live in, so the consequences of actions should vary according to the circumstances.

Hurricanes :: essays research papers

Hurricane, name applied to migratory tropical cyclones that originate over oceans in certain regions near the equator, and particularly to those arising in the West Indian region, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Hurricane-type cyclones in the western Pacific are known as typhoons. Hurricanes are high winds that move in a circular motion, around an eye (a low pressure center of a storm). The diameter of the area affected by winds of destructive force may exceed 150 mi. Gale winds prevail over a larger area, averaging 300 mi in diameter. The strength of a hurricane is rated from 1 to 5. Obviously 1 is the lowest and 5 is the highest strength. Hurricanes sometimes produce over 250 mm (10 in) of rain and lead to extensive flooding. Which in turn can cause another problem in its self.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The places that are most often hit with tornados are: Antigua, Bermuda, Central America, Charleston, SC, Galveston, TX, Miami, Providence, RI, Santo Domingo, Asia, Honduras, Oceania, United States, and the West Indies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Florida has to contend with the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history. Hurricane Andrew swept through southern Florida in August 1992, just south of Miami, leaving 41 people dead, making more than 200,000 homeless, and doing about $20 billion worth of property damage. In August 1995 Hurricane Erin crossed Florida along the same path, then turned and swept through the panhandle, causing an estimated $360 million in damage. The panhandle was pounded again later in 1995 by Hurricane Opal, which caused damage of $2.1 billion. A series of tornadoes hit the central part of the state in February 1998, claiming 42 lives. That is just one case in particular. All over the world the same story happens over and over. What is so sad is that in the 3rd world countries, there is little to no protection and many more lives are lost. Such as in 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, killing between 5,600 and 7,000 people. It also swept away 70 percent of their crops and cost billions of dollars to put the nation back together.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Right now there are people trying to prevent hurricanes. At the present it is impossible to prevent them, but with early detection many lives have been saved.

Essay examples --

Mustafe Ali Karen Herreid English 1101-83 October 20, 2013 Hunger Games Film Review. The Hunger games movie is a 2012 American science fiction adventure film directed by Gary Ross and based on the naval of the same name by Suzanne Collins. The picture is the first installment in the hunger games film series and was produced by Nina Jackabson and john kilik, with a screen play by Ross. Collis and Billy Ray. The film stars are Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson, Liam Hemsworth, Woody Harrelson, Elizabeth Banks, Lenny Kravitz, Stanley Tucci and Donald Sutherland. The story of hunger games movie takes place in the nation of panem; which used to be in the north of America. The nation of panem consists of a wealthy capitol and twelve poorer districts. The thirteen district was supposedly destroyed, so In order to remind the people of the history each year, the Capitol created an annual event the hunger a reality T.V show in which twenty four children from the remaining district must fight in to death,. The main purpose of the hunger games movie was to show the rebels (other districts) that not even children are beyond the reach of their power. The rules of hunger games movie was one boy and one girl between the ages eighteen and twelve from each district are gathered and fight in to death in an arena (large forest area) until there Is a winner. These boys and girls (tributes) are selected by lottery. Primrose Everdeen is chosen in her first reaping but later her older sister katniss Everdeen volunteers to take her place. The other district twelve male tribute is Peeta mallark. During the hunger games movie there was a switch up and two people from the same district could win. Peeta mallark and katniss Everdeen from district twelve w... ...ot gory I really enjoyed watching this movie. The Hunger Games has all the necessary prerequisites of solid movie. It is aesthetically pleasing, visually impressive and well-written (especially for an adaptation of a first-person narrative). The emotional weight of the movie is shouldered by Jenifer Lawrence, who plays the film’s hardened heroine Katniss Everdeen, and the supporting cast’s performances are all well above average. Most of the actors and actress are very young and do not that much experience. Finally the movie is a good movie. Actually this movie doesn’t need any improvement. The writer, actresses, and actors did their best. They tried to make a point and be a creative about it and that is exactly what they did. It is an amazing movie. I The Hunger Games. Dir. Gary Ross. Perf. Jennifer Lawrence and Josh Hutcherson. Lionsgate, 2012. DVD.

Kolb Learning Style Inventory

The Kolb Learning Style Inventory—Version 3. 1 2005 Technical Speci? cations Alice Y. Kolb Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. David A. Kolb Case Western Reserve University May 15, 2005 Abstract The Kolb Learning Style Inventory Version 3. 1 (KLSI 3. 1), revised in 2005, is the latest revision of the original Learning Style Inventory developed by David A. Kolb. Like its predecessors, KLSI 3. 1 is based on experiential learning theory (Kolb 1984) and is designed to help individuals identify the way they learn from experience.This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse, and more representative sample of 6977 LSI users. The format, items, scoring and interpretative booklet remain identical with KLSI 3. The technical speci? cations are designed to adhere to the standards for educational and psychological testing developed by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measureme nt in Education (1999). Section 1 of the technical speci? cations describes the conceptual foundations of the LSI 3. in the theory of experiential learning (ELT). Section 2 provides a description of the inventory that includes its purpose, history, and format. Section 3 describes the characteristics of the KLSI 3. 1 normative sample. Section 4 includes internal reliability and test-retest reliability studies of the inventory. Section 5 provides information about research on the internal and external validity for the instrument. Internal validity studies of the structure of the KLSI 3. 1 using correlation and factor analysis are reported.External validity includes research on demographics, educational specialization, concurrent validity with other experiential learning assessment instruments, aptitude test performance, academic performance, experiential learning in teams, and educational applications.  © Copyright 2005: Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 1. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION—EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES The Kolb Learning Style Inventory differs from other tests of learning style and personality used in education by being based on a comprehensive theory of learning and development.Experiential learning theory (ELT) draws on the work of prominent twentieth century scholars who gave experience a central role in their theories of human learning and development-notably John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget, William James, Carl Jung, Paulo Freire, Carl Rogers, and others-to develop a holistic model of the experiential learning process and a multi-linear model of adult development. The theory, described in detail in Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984), is built on six propositions that are shared by these scholars. . Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes. To improve learning in higher education, the primary focus should be on engaging students in a process that best enhances their learning —a process that includes feedback on the effectiveness of their learning efforts. â€Å"†¦ education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience: †¦ the process and goal of education are one and the same thing. † (Dewey 1897: 79) 2. All learning is relearning.Learning is best facilitated by a process that draws out the students’ beliefs and ideas about a topic so that they can be examined, tested, and integrated with new, more re? ned ideas. 3. Learning requires the resolution of con? icts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world. Con? ict, differences, and disagreement are what drive the learning process. In the process of learning, one is called upon to move back and forth between opposing modes of re? ection and action and feeling and thinking. 4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.It is not just the result of cognit ion but involves the integrated functioning of the total person—thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving. 5. Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the environment. In Piaget’s terms, learning occurs through equilibration of the dialectic processes of assimilating new experiences into existing concepts and accommodating existing concepts to new experience. 6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge. ELT proposes a constructivist theory of learning whereby social knowledge is created and recreated in the personal knowledge of the learner.This stands in contrast to the â€Å"transmission† model on which much current educational practice is based, where pre-existing ? xed ideas are transmitted to the learner. ELT de? nes learning as â€Å"the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience† (Kolb 1984: 41). The ELT model portrays two dialectically related modes of grasping experience-Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC)-and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience-Re? ctive Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE). Experiential learning is a process of constructing knowledge that involves a creative tension among the four learning modes that is responsive to contextual demands. This process is portrayed as an idealized learning cycle or spiral where the learner â€Å"touches all the bases†Ã¢â‚¬â€experiencing, re? ecting, thinking, and acting-in a recursive process that is responsive to the learning situation and what is being learned. Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observations and re? ections. These re? ctions are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences (Figure 1). ELT proposes that this idealized learning cycle will vary by individuals’ learning style and learning context. 2 LSI Technical Manual Concrete Experience Testing Implications of Concepts in New Situations Observation and Reflections Formation of Abstract Concepts and Generalization Figure 1. The experiential learning cycle In The art of changing the brain: Enriching teaching by exploring the biology f learning, James Zull, a biologist and founding director of CWRU’s University Center for Innovation in Teaching and Education (UCITE), sees a link between ELT and neuroscience research, suggesting that this process of experiential learning is related to the process of brain functioning as shown in Figure 2. â€Å"Put into words, the ? gure illustrates that concrete experiences come through the sensory cortex, re? ective observation involves the integrative cortex at the back, creating new abstract concepts occurs in the frontal integrative cortex, and active testing i nvolves the motor brain.In other words, the learning cycle arises from the structure of the brain. † (Zull 2002: 18-19) 3 Figure 2. The experiential learning cycle and regions of the cerebral cortex. Reprinted with permission of the author (Zull 2002) ELT posits that learning is the major determinant of human development and that how individuals learn shapes the course of their personal development. Previous research (Kolb 1984) has shown that learning styles are in? uenced by personality type, educational specialization, career choice, and current job role and tasks. Yamazaki (2002, 2004a) has recently identi? d cultural in? uences as well. The ELT developmental model (Kolb 1984) de? nes three stages: (1) acquisition, from birth to adolescence, where basic abilities and cognitive structures develop; (2) specialization, from formal schooling through the early work and personal experiences of adulthood, where social, educational, and organizational socialization forces shape th e development of a particular, specialized learning style; and (3) integration in midcareer and later life, where nondominant modes of learning are expressed in work and personal life.Development through these stages is characterized by increasing complexity and relativism in adapting to the world and by increased integration of the dialectic con? icts between AC and CE and AE and RO. Development is conceived as multi-linear based on an individual’s particular learning style and life path—development of CE increases affective complexity, of RO increases perceptual complexity, of AC increases symbolic complexity, and of AE increases behavioral complexity.The concept of learning style describes individual differences in learning based on the learner’s preference for employing different phases of the learning cycle. Because of our hereditary equipment, our particular life experiences, and the demands of our present environment, we develop a preferred way of choosin g among the four learning modes. We resolve the con? ict between being concrete or abstract and between being active or re? ective in patterned, characteristic ways.Much of the research on ELT has focused on the concept of learning style, using the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to assess individual learning styles (Kolb 1971, 1985, 1999). While individuals tested on the LSI show many different patterns of scores, previous research with the instrument has identi? ed four learning styles that are associated with different approaches to learning—Diverging, Assimilating, Converging, and Accommodating. The following summary of the four basic learning styles is based on both research and clinical observation of these patterns of LSI scores (Kolb1984, 1999a). LSI Technical Manual An individual with diverging style has CE and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. It is labeled Di verging because a person with it performs better in situations that call for generation of ideas, such as a brainstorming session. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, have broad cultural interests, and tend to specialize in the arts.In formal learning situations, people with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, listening with an open mind to different points of view and receiving personalized feedback. An individual with an assimilating style has AC and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at understanding a wide range of information and putting it into concise, logical form. Individuals with an Assimilating style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. Generally, people with this style ? d it more important that a theory have logical soundness than practical value. The Assimilating learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through. An individual with a converging style has AC and AE as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at ? nding practical uses for ideas and theories. They have the ability to solve problems and make decisions based on ? ding solutions to questions or problems. Individuals with a Converging learning style prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems rather than with social issues and interpersonal issues. These learning skills are important for effectiveness in specialist and technology careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer to experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments, and practical applications. An individual with an accommodating style has CE and AE as do minant learning abilities.People with this learning style have the ability to learn from primarily â€Å"hands-on† experience. They enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new and challenging experiences. Their tendency may be to act on â€Å"gut† feelings rather than on logical analysis. In solving problems, individuals with an Accommodating learning style rely more heavily on people for information than on their own technical analysis. This learning style is important for effectiveness in action-oriented careers such as marketing or sales.In formal learning situations, people with the Accommodating learning style prefer to work with others to get assignments done, to set goals, to do ? eld work, and to test out different approaches to completing a project. 5 FACTORS THAT SHAPE AND INFLUENCE LEARNING STYLES The above patterns of behavior associated with the four basic learning styles are shaped by transactions between people and their environment at ? ve different levels—personality, educational specialization, professional career, current job role, and adaptive competencies.While some have interpreted learning style as a personality variable (Garner 2000; Furnam, Jackson, and Miller 1999), ELT de? nes learning style as a social psychological concept that is only partially determined by personality. Personality exerts a small but pervasive in? uence in nearly all situations; but at the other levels, learning style is in? uenced by increasingly speci? c environmental demands of educational specialization, career, job, and tasks skills. Table 1 summarizes previous research that has identi? ed how learning styles are determined at these various levels. Table 1.Relationship Between Learning Styles and Five Levels of Behavior Behavior Level Personality types Educational Specialization Professional Career Current Jobs Adaptive Competencies Diverging Introverted Feeling Arts, English History Psychology Social Service Arts Personal j obs Valuing skills Assimilating Introverted Intuition Mathematics Physical Science Sciences Research Information Information jobs Thinking skills Converging Extraverted Thinking Engineering Medicine Engineering Medicine Technology Technical jobs Decision skills Accommodating Extraverted Sensation Education Communication Nursing Sales Social Service Education Executive jobs Action skills Personality Types Although the learning styles of and learning modes proposed by ELT are derived from the works of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget, many have noted the similarity of these concepts to Carl Jung’s descriptions of individuals’ preferred ways for adapting in the world.Several research studies relating the LSI with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) indicate that Jung’s Extraversion/Introversion dialectical dimension correlates with the Active/Re? ective dialectic of ELT, and the MBTI Feeling/Thinking dimension correlates with the LSI Concrete Experience/ Abstract Concep tualization dimension. The MBTI Sensing type is associated with the LSI Accommodating learning style, and the MBTI Intuitive type with the LSI Assimilating style. MBTI Feeling types correspond to LSI Diverging learning styles, and Thinking types to Converging styles. The above discussion implies that the Accommodating learning style is the Extraverted Sensing type, and the Converging style the Extraverted Thinking type.The Assimilating learning style corresponds to the Introverted Intuitive personality type, and the Diverging style to the Introverted Feeling type. Myers (1962) descriptions of these MBTI types are very similar to the corresponding LSI learning styles as described by ELT (Kolb 1984, 83-85). Educational Specialization Early educational experiences shape people’s individual learning styles by instilling positive attitudes toward speci? c sets of learning skills and by teaching students how to learn. Although elementary education is generalized, an increasing proc ess of specialization begins in high school and becomes sharper during the college years. This specialization in the realms of social knowledge in? ences individuals’ orientations toward learning, resulting in particular relations between learning styles and early training in an educational specialty or discipline. For example, people specializing in the arts, history, political science, English, and psychology tend to have Diverging learning styles, while those majoring 6 LSI Technical Manual in more abstract and applied areas such as medicine and engineering have Converging learning styles. Individuals with Accommodating styles often have educational backgrounds in education, communications, and nursing, and those with Assimilating styles in mathematics and physical sciences. Professional Career A third set of factors that shape learning styles stems from professional careers.One’s professional career choice not only exposes one to a specialized learning environment, but it also involves a commitment to a generic professional problem, such as social service, that requires a specialized adaptive orientation. In addition, one becomes a member of a reference group of peers who share a professional mentality and a common set of values and beliefs about how one should behave professionally. This professional orientation shapes learning style through habits acquired in professional training and through the more immediate normative pressures involved in being a competent professional. Research over the years has shown that social service and arts careers attract people with a Diverging learning style. Professions in the sciences and information or research have people with an Assimilating learning style.The Converging learning styles tends to be dominant among professionals in technology-intensive ? elds such as medicine and engineering. Finally, the Accommodating learning style characterizes people with careers in ? elds such as sales, social service , and education. Current Job Role The fourth level of factors in? uencing learning style is the person’s current job role. The task demands and pressures of a job shape a person’s adaptive orientation. Executive jobs, such as general management, that require a strong orientation to task accomplishment and decision making in uncertain emergent circumstances require an Accommodating learning style.Personal jobs, such as counseling and personnel administration, which require the establishment of personal relationships and effective communication with other people, demand a Diverging learning style. Information jobs, such as planning and research, which require data gathering and analysis, as well as conceptual modeling, require an Assimilating learning style. Technical jobs, such as bench engineering and production, require technical and problem-solving skills, which require a convergent learning orientation. Adaptive Competencies The ? fth and most immediate level of for ces that shapes learning style is the speci? c task or problem the person is currently working on. Each task we face requires a corresponding set of skills for effective performance.The effective matching of task demands and personal skills results in an adaptive competence. The Accommodative learning style encompasses a set of competencies that can best be termed Acting skills: Leadership, Initiative, and Action. The Diverging learning style is associated with Valuing skills: Relationship, Helping Others, and Sense Making. The Assimilating learning style is related to Thinking skills: Information Gathering, Information Analysis, and Theory Building. Finally, the Converging learning style is associated with Decision skills like Quantitative Analysis, Use of Technology, and Goal Setting (Kolb1984). 7 2. THE LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY PURPOSE The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) was created to ful? l two purposes: 1. To serve as an educational tool to increase individuals’ understa nding of the process of learning from experience and their unique individual approach to learning. By increasing awareness of how they learn, the aim is to increase learners’ capacity for meta-cognitive control of their learning process, enabling them to monitor and select learning approaches that work best for them in different learning situations. By providing a language for talking about learning styles and the learning process, the inventory can foster conversation among learners and educators about how to create the most effective learning environment for those involved.For this purpose, the inventory is best presented not as a test, but as an experience in understanding how one learns. Scores on the inventory should not be interpreted as de? nitive, but as a starting point for exploration of how one learns best. To facilitate this purpose, a self-scoring and interpretation book that explains the experiential learning cycle and the characteristics of the different learni ng styles, along with scoring and pro? ling instructions, is included with the inventory. 2. To provide a research tool for investigating experiential learning theory (ELT) and the characteristics of individual learning styles. This research can contribute to the broad advancement of experiential learning and, speci? ally, to the validity of interpretations of individual learning style scores. A research version of the instrument, including only the inventory to be scored by the researcher, is available for this purpose. The LSI is not a criterion-referenced test and is not intended for use to predict behavior for purposes of selection, placement, job assignment, or selective treatment. This includes not using the instrument to assign learners to different educational treatments, a process sometimes referred to as tracking. Such categorizations based on a single test score amount to stereotyping that runs counter to the philosophy of experiential learning, which emphasizes individua l uniqueness. When it is used in the simple, straightforward, and open way intended, the LSI usually provides a valuable self-examination and discussion that recognizes the uniqueness, complexity, and variability in individual approaches to learning. The danger lies in the rei? cation of learning styles into ? xed traits, such that learning styles become stereotypes used to pigeonhole individuals and their behavior. † (Kolb 1981a: 290-291) The LSI is constructed as a self-assessment exercise and tool for construct validation of ELT. Tests designed for predictive validity typically begin with a criterion, such as academic achievement, and work backward to identify items or tests with high criterion correlations.Even so, even the most sophisticated of these tests rarely rises above a . 5 correlation with the criterion. For example, while Graduate Record Examination Subject Test scores are better predictors of ? rst-year graduate school grades than either the General Test score o r undergraduate GPA, the combination of these three measures only produces multiple correlations with grades ranging from . 4 to . 6 in various ? elds (Anastasi and Urbina 1997). Construct validation is not focused on an outcome criterion, but on the theory or construct the test measures. Here the emphasis is on the pattern of convergent and discriminant theoretical predictions made by the theory. Failure to con? m predictions calls into question the test and the theory. â€Å"However, even if each of the correlations proved to be quite low, their cumulative effect would be to support the validity of the test and the underlying theory. † (Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook 1960: 160) Judged by the standards of construct validity, ELT has been widely accepted as a useful framework for learning-centered educational innovation, including instructional design, curriculum development, and life-long learning. Field and job classi? cation studies viewed as a whole also show a patter n of results consistent with the ELT structure of knowledge theory. 8 LSI Technical ManualHISTORY Five versions of the Learning Style Inventory have been published over the last 35 years. During this time, attempts have been made to openly share information about the inventory, its scoring, and its technical characteristics with other interested researchers. The results of their research have been instrumental in the continuous improvement of the inventory. Learning Style Inventory-Version 1 (Kolb 1971, Kolb 1976) The original Learning Style Inventory (LSI 1) was created in 1969 as part of an MIT curriculum development project that resulted in the ? rst management textbook based on experiential learning (Kolb, Rubin, and McIntyre 1971).It was originally developed as an experiential educational exercise designed to help learners understand the process of experiential learning and their unique individual style of learning from experience. The term â€Å"learning style† was coin ed to describe these individual differences in how people learn. Items for the inventory were selected from a longer list of words and phrases developed for each learning mode by a panel of four behavioral scientists familiar with experiential learning theory. This list was given to a group of 20 graduate students who were asked to rate each word or phrase for social desirability. Attempting to select words that were of equal social desirability, a ? nal set of 12 items including a word or phrase for each learning mode was selected for pre-testing.Analysis showed that three of these sets produced nearly random responses and were thus eliminated, resulting in a ? nal version of the LSI with 9 items. These items were further re? ned through item-whole correlation analysis to include six scored items for each learning mode. Research with the inventory was stimulated by classroom discussions with students, who found the LSI to be helpful to them in understanding the process of experient ial learning and how they learned. From 1971 until it was revised in 1985, there were more than 350 published research studies using the LSI. Validity for the LSI 1 was established in a number of ? elds, including education, management, psychology, computer science, medicine, and nursing (Hickcox 1990, Iliff 1994).The results of this research with LSI 1 provided provided empirical support for the most complete and systematic statement of ELT, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984). Several studies of the LSI 1 identi? ed psychometric weaknesses of the instrument, particularly low internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2 (Kolb 1985) Low reliability coef? cients and other concerns about the LSI 1 led to a revision of the inventory in 1985 (LSI 2). Six new items chosen to increase internal reliability (alpha) were added to each scale, making 12 scored items on each scale. These chan ges increased scale alphas to an average of . 81 ranging from . 73 to . 88.Wording of all items was simpli? ed to a seventh grade reading level, and the format was changed to include sentence stems (e. g. , â€Å"When I learn†). Correlations between the LSI 1 and LSI 2 scales averaged . 91 and ranged from . 87 to . 93. A new more diverse normative reference group of 1446 men and women was created. Research with the LSI 2 continued to establish validity for the instrument. From 1985 until the publication of the LSI 3 1999, more than 630 studies were published, most using the LSI 2. While internal reliability estimates for the LSI 2 remained high in independent studies, test-retest reliability remained low. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2a (Kolb 1993)In 1991 Veres, Sims, and Locklear published a reliability study of a randomized version of the LSI 2 that showed a small decrease in internal reliability but a dramatic increase in test-retest reliability with the random scoring format. To study this format, a research version of the random format inventory (LSI 2a) was published in 1993. 9 Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3 (Kolb 1999) In 1999 the randomized format was adopted in a revised self-scoring and interpretation booklet (LSI 3) that included a color-coded scoring sheet to simplify scoring. The new booklet was organized to follow the learning cycle, emphasizing the LSI as an â€Å"experience in learning how you learn. † New application information on teamwork, managing con? ct, personal and professional communication, and career choice and development were added. The LSI 3 continued to use the LSI 2 normative reference group until norms for the randomized version could be created. Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3. 1 (Kolb 2005) The new LSI 3. 1 described here modi? ed the LSI 3 to include new normative data described below. This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse and representative sample of 697 7 LSI users. The format, items, scoring, and interpretative booklet remain identical to KLSI 3. The only change in KLSI 3. 1 is in the norm charts used to convert raw LSI scores. FORMATThe Learning Style Inventory is designed to measure the degree to which individuals display the different learning styles derived from experiential learning theory. The form of the inventory is determined by three design parameters. First, the test is brief and straightforward, making it useful both for research and for discussing the learning process with individuals and providing feedback. Second, the test is constructed in such a way that individuals respond to it as they would respond to a learning situation: it requires them to resolve the tensions between the abstract-concrete and active-re? ective orientations. For this reason, the LSI format requires them to rank order their preferences for the abstract, concrete, active, and re? ective orientations.Third, and most obviously, it was hoped that the measures of learning styles would predict behavior in a way consistent with the theory of experiential learning. All versions of the LSI have had the same format—a short questionnaire (9 items for LSI 1 and 12 items for subsequent versions) that asks respondents to rank four sentence endings that correspond to the four learning modes— Concrete Experience (e. g. , experiencing), Re? ective Observation (re? ecting), Abstract Conceptualization (thinking), and Active Experimentation (doing). Items in the LSI are geared to a seventh grade reading level. The inventory is intended for use by teens and adults. It is not intended for use by younger children.The LSI has been translated into many languages, including, Arabic, Chinese, French, Japanese, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Thai, and there have been many cross-cultural studies using it (Yamazaki 2002). The Forced-Choice Format of the LSI The format of the LSI is a forced-choice format that ranks an indiv idual’s relative choice preferences among the four modes of the learning cycle. This is in contrast to the more common normative, or free-choice, format, such as the widely used Likert scale, which rates absolute preferences on independent dimensions. The forced-choice format of the LSI was dictated by the theory of experiential learning and by the primary purpose of the instrument.ELT is a holistic, dynamic, and dialectic theory of learning. Because it is holistic, the four modes that make up the experiential learning cycle-CE, RO, AC, and AE- are conceived as interdependent. Learning involves resolving the creative tension among these learning modes in response to the speci? c learning situation. Since the two learning dimensions, AC-CE and AE-RO, are related dialectically, the choice of one pole involves not choosing the opposite pole. Therefore, because ELT postulates that learning in life situations requires the resolution of con? icts among interdependent learning modes , to be ecologically valid, the learning style assessment process should require a similar process of con? ct resolution in the choice of one’s preferred learning approach. ELT de? nes learning style not as a ? xed trait, but as a dynamic state arising from an individual’s preferential resolution of the dual dialectics of experiencing/conceptualizing and acting/re? ecting. â€Å"The stability and endurance of these states in individuals comes not solely from ? xed genetic qualities or characteristics of human beings: nor, for that matter, does it come from the stable ? xed demands of environmental circumstances. Rather, stable and enduring patterns of human individuality arise from consistent patterns of transaction between the individual and his or her 10 LSI Technical Manual environment.The way we process the possibilities of each new emerging event determines the range of choices and decisions we see. The choices and decisions we make to some extent determine the e vents we live through, and these events in? uence our future choices. Thus, people create themselves through the choice of actual occasions they live through. † (Kolb 1984: 63-64) The primary purpose of the LSI is to provide learners with information about their preferred approach to learning. The most relevant information for the learner is about intra-individual differences, his or her relative preference for the four learning modes, not inter-individual comparisons.Ranking relative preferences among the four modes in a forced-choice format is the most direct way to provide this information. While individuals who take the inventory sometimes report dif? culty in making these ranking choices, they report that the feedback they get from the LSI gives them more insight than had been the case when we used a normative Likert rating scale version. This is because the social desirability response bias in the rating scales fails to de? ne a clear learning style, that is, they say th ey prefer all learning modes. This is supported by Harland’s (2002) ? nding that feedback from a forced-choice test format was perceived as more accurate, valuable, and useful than feedback from a normative version.The adoption of the forced-choice method for the LSI has at times placed it in the center of an ongoing debate in the research literature about the merits of forced-choice instruments between what might be called â€Å"rigorous statisticians† and â€Å"pragmatic empiricists. † Statisticians have questioned the use of the forced-choice format because of statistical limitations, called ipsativity, that are the result of the ranking procedure. Since ipsative scores represent the relative strength of a variable compared to others in the ranked set, the resulting dependence among scores produces methodinduced negative correlations among variables and violates a fundamental assumption of classical test theory required for use of techniques such as analysis of variance and factor analysis-independence of error variance.Cornwell and Dunlap (1994) stated that ipsative scores cannot be factored and that correlation-based analysis of ipsative data produced uninterpretable and invalid results (cf. Hicks 1970, Johnson et al. 1988). Other criticisms include the point that ipsative scores are technically ordinal, not the interval scales required for parametric statistical analysis; that they produce lower internal reliability estimates and lower validity coef? cients (Barron 1996). While critics of forced-choice instruments acknowledge that these criticisms do not detract from the validity of intra-individual comparisons (LSI purpose one), they argue that ipsative scores are not appropriate for inter-individual comparisons, since inter-individual comparisons on a ranked ariable are not independent absolute preferences, but preferences that are relative to the other ranked variables in the set (Barron 1996, Karpatschof and Elkjaer 2000). Howeve r, since ELT argues that a given learning mode preference is relative to the other three modes, it is the comparison of relative not absolute preferences that the theory seeks to assess. The â€Å"pragmatic empiricists† argue that in spite of theoretical statistical arguments, normative and forced-choice variations of the same instrument can produce empirically comparable results. Karpatschof and Elkjaer (2000) advanced this case in their metaphorically titled paper â€Å"Yet the Bumblebee Flies. † With theory, simulation, and empirical data, they presented evidence for the comparability of ipsative and normative data.Saville and Wilson (1991) found a high correspondence between ipsative and normative scores when forced choice involved a large number of alternative dimensions. Normative tests also have serious limitations, which the forced-choice format was originally created to deal with (Sisson 1948). Normative scales are subject to numerous response biases—ce ntral tendency bias, in which respondents avoid extreme responses, acquiescence response, and social desirability responding-and are easy to fake. Forced- choice instruments are designed to avoid these biases by forcing choice among alternatives in a way that re? ects real live choice making (Hicks 1970, Barron 1996).Matthews and Oddy found large bias in the extremeness of positive and negative responses in normative tests and concluded that when sources of artifact are controlled, â€Å"individual differences in ipsative scores can be used to rank individuals meaningfully† (1997: 179). Pickworth and Shoeman (2000) found signi? cant response bias in two normative LSI formats developed by Marshall and Merritt (1986) and Geiger et al. (1993). Conversely, Beutell and Kressel (1984) found that social desirability contributed less than 4% of the variance in LSI scores, in spite of the fact that individual LSI items all had very high social desirability. 11 In addition, ipsative te sts can provide external validity evidence comparable to normative data (Barron 1996) or in some cases even better (Hicks 1970). For example, attempts to use normative rating versions of theLSI report reliability and internal validity data but little or no external validity (Pickworth and Shoeman 2000, Geiger et al. 1993, Romero et al. 1992, Marshall and Merritt 1986, Merritt and Marshall 1984). Characteristics of the LSI Scales The LSI assesses six variables: four primary scores that measure an individual’s relative emphasis on the four learning orientations—Concrete Experience (CE), Re? ective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE)—and two combination scores that measure an individual’s preference for abstractness over concreteness (AC-CE) and action over re? ection (AE-RO). The four primary scales of the LSI are ipsative because of the forced-choice format of the instrument.This results in negative correlatio ns among the four scales, the mean magnitude of which can be estimated (assuming no underlying correlations among them) by the formula -1/(m – 1) where m is the number of variables (Johnson et al. 1988). This results in a predicted average method- induced correlation of -. 33 among the four primary LSI scales. The combination scores AC-CE and AE-RO, however, are not ipsative. Forced- choice instruments can produce scales that are not ipsative (Hicks 1970; Pathi, Manning, and Kolb 1989). To demonstrate the independence of the combination scores and interdependence of the primary scores, Pathi, Manning, and Kolb (1989) had SPSS-X randomly ? ll out and analyze 1000 LSI’s according to the ranking instructions. While the mean intercorrelation among the primary scales was -. 3 as predicted, the correlation between AC-CE and AE-RO was +. 038. In addition, if AC-CE and AE-RO were ipsative scales, the correlation between the two scales would be -1. 0 according to the above form ula. Observed empirical relationships are always much smaller, e. g. +. 13 for a sample of 1591 graduate students (Freedman and Stumpf 1978), -. 09 for the LSI 2 normative sample of 1446 respondents (Kolb 1999b), -. 19 for a sample of 1296 MBA students (Boyatzis and Mainemelis 2000) and -. 21 for the normative sample of 6977 LSI’s for the KLSI 3. 1 described below. The independence of the two combination scores can be seen by examining some example scoring results.For example, when AC-CE or AE-RO on a given item takes a value of +2 (from, say, AC = 4 and CE = 2, or AC = 3 and CE = 1), the other score can take a value of +2 or -2. Similarly when either score takes a value of +1 (from 4 -3, 3-2, or 2-1), the other can take the values of +3, +1, -1, or -3. In other words, when AC-CE takes a particular value, AERO can take two to four different values, and the score on one dimension does not determine the score on the other. 12 LSI Technical Manual 3. NORMS FOR THE LSI VERSION 3. 1 New norms for the LSI 3. 1 were created from responses by several groups of users who completed the randomized LSI 3. These norms are used to convert LSI raw scale scores to percentile scores (see Appendix 1).The purpose of percentile conversions is to achieve scale comparability among an individual’s LSI scores (Barron 1996) and to de? ne cutpoints for de? ning the learning style types. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for KLSI 3. 1 scale scores for the normative groups. Table 2. KLSI 3. 1 Scores for Normative Groups SAMPLE TOTAL NORM GROUP On-line Users Research Univ. Freshmen Lib. Arts College Students Art College UG Research Univ. MBA Distance E-learning Adult UG N 6977 Mn. S. D. 5023 288 CE 25. 39 6. 43 25. 22 6. 34 23. 81 6. 06 24. 51 6. 39 28. 02 6. 61 25. 54 6. 44 23. 26 5. 73 RO 28. 19 7. 07 27. 98 7. 03 29. 82 6. 71 28. 25 7. 32 29. 51 7. 18 26. 98 6. 94 27. 64 7. 04 AC 32. 22 7. 29 32. 43 7. 32 33. 49 6. 91 32. 07 6. 22 29. 06 6. 4 33. 92 7. 37 34 . 36 6. 87 AE 34. 14 6. 68 34. 36 6. 65 32. 89 6. 36 35. 05 7. 08 33. 17 6. 52 33. 48 7. 06 34. 18 6. 28 AC-CE 6. 83 11. 69 7. 21 11. 64 9. 68 10. 91 7. 56 10. 34 1. 00 11. 13 8. 38 11. 77 11. 10 10. 45 AE-RO 5. 96 11. 63 6. 38 11. 61 3. 07 10. 99 6. 80 12. 37 3. 73 11. 49 6. 49 11. 92 6. 54 11. 00 221 813 328 304 TOTAL NORMATIVE GROUP Normative percentile scores for the LSI 3. 1 are based on a total sample of 6977 valid LSI scores from users of the instrument. This user norm group is composed of 50. 4% women and 49. 4% men. Their age range is 17-75, broken down into the following age-range groups: < 19 = 9. 8%, 19-24 = 17. %, 25-34 = 27%, 35-44 = 23%, 45-54 = 17. 2%, and >54 = 5. 8 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 2%, secondary school degree = 32. 1%, university degree = 41. 4%, and post-graduate degree = 25. 3%. The sample includes college students and working adults in a wide variety of ? elds. It is made up primarily of U. S. residents (80%) with the remaining 20% of users residing in 64 different countries. The norm group is made up of six subgroups, the speci? c demographic characteristics of which are described below. 13 On-line Users This sample of 5023 is composed of individuals and groups who have signed up to take the LSI on-line.Group users include undergraduate and graduate student groups, adult learners, business management groups, military management groups, and other organizational groups. Half of the sample are men and half are women. Their ages range as follows: 55 = 8. 1 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 7%, secondary school degree = 18. 2%, university degree = 45. 5%, and postgraduate degree = 34. 6%. Most of the on-line users (66%) reside in the U. S. with the remaining 34% living in 64 different countries, with the largest representations from Canada (317), U. K. (212), India (154), Germany (100), Brazil (75), Singapore (59), France (49), and Japan (42). Research U niversity FreshmenThis sample is composed of 288 entering freshmen at a top research university. 53% are men and 47% are women. All are between the ages of 17 and 22. More than 87% of these students intend to major in science or engineering. Liberal Arts College Students Data for this sample were provided by Kayes (2005). This sample includes 221 students (182 undergraduates and 39 part-time graduate students) enrolled in business courses at a private liberal arts college. Their average age is 22, ranging from 18 to 51. 52% are male and 48% are female. Art College Undergraduates This sample is composed of 813 freshmen and graduating students from three undergraduate art colleges. Half of the sample are men and half are women.Their average age is 20, distributed as follows: 35 = 1%. Research University MBA Students This sample is composed of 328 full-time (71%) and part-time (29%) MBA students in a research university management school. 63% are men and 37% women. Their average age is 27, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 4. 1%, 25-34 = 81. 3%, 35-44 = 13. 8%, 45-54 = 1%. Distance E-learning Adult Undergraduate Students This sample is composed of 304 adult learners enrolled in an e-learning distance education undergraduate degree program at a large state university. 56% are women and 44% men. Their average age is 36, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 6. 3%, 25-34 = 37. 5%, 35-44 = 40. %, 45-54 = 14. 5%, and > 55 = 1. 6%. CUT-POINTS FOR LEARNING STYLE TYPES The four basic learning style types—Accommodating, Diverging, Assimilating, and Converging-are created by dividing the AC-CE and AE-RO scores at the ? ftieth percentile of the total norm group and plotting them on the Learning Style Type Grid (Kolb 1999a: 6). The cut point for the AC-CE scale is +7, and the cut point for the AE-RO scale is +6. The Accommodating type would be de? ned by an AC-CE raw score =7, the Diverging type by AC-CE =7, and the Assimilating type by AC-CE >=8 and AE-RO +12) while the re? ective regions are de? ned by percentiles less than 33. 33% (